![]() ![]() We conclude that the risks for supply chain disruptions are high. Uniquely, this study provides detailed geographically explicit data on the cobalt supply chain, with the aim of both determining how susceptible primary cobalt production is to supply chain disruptions, and to evaluate possible supply risks. Global cobalt demand is expected to quadruple in the next four decades, due primarily to lithium-ion battery demand. The proposed process flowsheet enables the recovery of Pb and Sb as antimonial lead and antimony trioxide, respectively.Ĭobalt is considered a critical raw material. The chemical and phase composition of the final leaching residue is determined to assess the possibility of using it as a feedstock for antimony trioxide production. The residual slag is leached with HNO 3 solution for the further removal of Pb and enrichment of Sb. The reduction temperature and carbon dosage are optimized by applying FactSage modeling and performing experimental tests for selective Pb recovery. ![]() The arsenic-free slag is reduced with carbon for Pb recovery as the antimonial lead. The effect of the roasting temperature and NaOH dosage is investigated with regard to the removal yield of As, Pb, and Sb. Lead softening slag, containing 63.9 wt% Pb, 17.7 wt% Sb, and 4.4 wt% As, is first roasted with NaOH at 400☌, followed by water leaching at room temperature. It is recommended that the mined production and processing capabilities are diversified, stockpiles are explored as a mechanism to absorb sudden shortages, and, most importantly, recycling of antimony (trioxide) should be further improved.Ī pyro-hydrometallurgical process is proposed in this study for the selective arsenic removal and the Pb and Sb recovery from lead softening slag, which incorporates NaOH roasting followed by water leaching, carbothermic reduction, and HNO 3 leaching as process steps. ![]() Overall, stockpiling played a significant role in both dampening and exacerbating supply disruptions. Substitution is possible for some antimony applications, but for one of the main applications, flame retardants, performance of substitutes is still considered inadequate. However, the presence of unrecovered by-products can also make the supply more elastic. Based on production volume, almost 70% of antimony was mined as by- or co-product in 2018, indicating a high supply risk. We found that the antimony diversity of supply of both mining and refining is low, but is enhanced by recycling, around 25% of global antimony supply is produced via recycling of antimony bearing metal alloys. This study examines major antimony supply chain disruptions from 1913 to 2018 and analyses how resilience mechanisms and price feedback loops contributed to supply chain resilience. Antimony is considered a critical and strategically important metal and is used in a wide range of products. ![]()
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